Five-big Ancient Chinese Groups and Their Cultures

Soleilmavis presented this paper at E-Leader Conference held by CASA (Chinese American Scholars Association) and Topica Education Group Vietnam in Jan 2020.

Abstract:

Shanhaijing (Classic of Mountains and Seas) records many ancient groups of people in Neolithic China. The five biggest were: Yan Di, Huang Di, Zhuan Xu, Di Jun and Shao Hao. They were names of groups instead of individuals. These groups first lived in the Pamirs Plateau, soon gathered in the north of the Tibetan Plateau and west of the Qinghai Lake and learned from each other advanced sciences and technologies, later spread out to other places of China and built their unique ancient cultures during the Neolithic Age.

Keywords: Shanhaijing; Neolithic China, Yan Di, Huang Di, Zhuan Xu, Di Jun, Shao Hao, the Great Yu, Erlitou, Ancient Chinese Civilization

Introduction

The Yan Di’s offspring spread out to the west of the Taklamakan Desert; The Huang Di’s offspring spread out to the north of the Chishui River, Tianshan Mountains and further northern and northeastern areas; The Di Jun’s and Shao Hao’s offspring spread out to the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River, where the Di Jun’s offspring lived in the west of the Shao Hao’s territories, which were near sea or in the Shandong Peninsula. Modern archaeological discoveries have revealed the authenticity of Shanhaijing’s records.

Ancient Chinese Civilizations

Archaeologists and historians commonly agree that Neolithic China had two main ancient cultural systems: the Yellow River Valley and Changjiang River Valley Cultural Systems. Starting from the lower reaches areas of the Yellow and Changjiang rivers, these cultures spread to surrounding areas.

The Yellow River Valley Cultural System, which included Di Qiang and Dong Yi cultures, was established on millet cultivation in the early and middle stages of the Neolithic Age and divided from wheat cultivation in the Shandong Peninsula and eastern Henan Province and millet cultivation in other areas, during the period of Longshan Culture (about 3200-1900BCE).

Most small regional cultures of ancient China had faded by the end of Neolithic Age, including the Changjiang River Valley Cultural System. However, the Yellow River Valley Culture became the mainstay of ancient Chinese civilization and developed to a much higher level.

Di Qiang Culture

Di Qiang Neolithic Culture contained seven phases:

Laoguantai Culture (about 6000-5000BCE) existed in the Weihe River Valley, or Guanzhong Plain, in Shaanxi and Gansu provinces. Laoguantai people lived predominantly by primitive agriculture, mainly planting millet.

Qin’an Dadiwan First Culture (about 6200-3000BCE) included pre-Yangshao Culture, Yangshao Culture and Changshan Under-layer Culture. Dating from at least 6000BCE, Qin’an First Culture is the earliest Neolithic culture so far discovered in archaeological digs in the northwestern China. In a site of Dadiwan First Culture in Tianshui of Gansu in the west of the Guanzhong Plain, from around 6200BCE, archaeologists found the earliest cultivated millet.

Yangshao Culture (about 5000-3000BCE), also called Painted-Pottery Culture, existed in the middle reach of the Yellow River. Centered in Huashan, it reached east to eastern Henan Province, west to Gansu and Qinghai provinces, north to the Hetao area, the Great Band of Yellow River and the Great Wall near Inner Mongolia, and south to the Jianghan Plain. Its core areas were Guanzhong and northern Shaanxi Province. Like Laoguantai Culture, it was based predominantly on primitive agriculture, mainly the planting of millet.

Cishan-peiligang Culture (about 6200-4600BCE) existed in modern-day Henan Province and southern Hebei Province. Yangshao Culture later developed from this culture. The people subsisted on agriculture and livestock husbandry, planting millet and raising pigs.

Majiayao Culture (about 3000-2000BCE) was distributed throughout central and southern Gansu Province, centered in the Loess Plateau of western Gansu Province and spreading east to the upper reaches of the Weihe River, west to the Hexi (Gansu) Corridor and northeastern Qinghai Province, north to the southern Ningxia autonomous region and south Sichuan Province. From Majiayao Culture came the earliest Chinese bronzes and early writing characters, which evolved from Yangshao Culture’s written language. Maijayao people planted millet and raised pigs, dogs and goats.

Qijia Culture (about 2000-1000BCE) is also known as Early Bronze Culture. Its inhabitation areas were essentially coincident with Majiayao Culture. It had roots not only in Majiayao Culture, but also influences from cultures in the east of Longshan and the central Shaanxi Plain. Qijia Culture exhibited advanced pottery making. Copper-smelting had also appeared and Qijia people made small red bronzewares, such as knives, awls, mirrors and finger rings. The economy was based on planting millet and raising pigs, dogs, goats, cows and horses. Qijia Culture had a patriarchal clan society featuring monogamous families and polygamy. Class polarization had emerged.

Siwa Culture (about 1400-700BCE) existed mainly in the east of Lanzhou in Gansu Province and the Qianshui River and Jingshui River valleys in Shaanxi Province. Siwa settlements were of significant size and held a mixture of citizens and slaves. The Siwa people produced pottery with distinctive saddle-shaped mouths and bronzeware including dagger-axes, spears, arrowheads, knives and bells.

Dong Yi Culture

Dong Yi Culture was the most advanced culture in Neolithic China and built by the Neolithic Shao Hao People, who lived in the Shandong Peninsula. First located in the Shandong Peninsula, its influence later spread to the lower reaches of the Yellow and Huai rivers. Dawenkou Dong Yi Culture spread out to the lower reach of the Changjiang River and even the southeastern China. Dong Yi Culture had greatly impacted Di Qiang Culture since the earliest time. Longshan Dong Yi Culture spread out to the inhabitation areas of Cishan-peiligang and Yangshao Di Qiang cultures and turned these regions into outposts of Dong Yi Culture.

Dong Yi Neolithic Culture contained five evolutionary phases:

Houli Culture (about 6400-5700BCE) was a millet-growing culture in the Shandong Peninsula during the Neolithic Age. The original site at Houli in the Linzi District of Shandong, was excavated from 1989 to 1990.

Beixin Culture (about 5300-4100BCE) was a millet-growing Neolithic culture in the Shandong Peninsula, existing in the southern and northern Taishan and Yimengshan Mountains in the west of the Jiaolai River, including today’s Yanzhou, Qufu, Tai’an, Pingyin, Changqing, Jinan, Zhangqiu, Zouping, Wenshang, Zhangdian, Qingzhou, Juxian, Linshu, Lanlin and Tengzhou. It also spread out to today’s Xuzhou and Lianyungang. The original site at Beixin, in Tengzhou of Shandong Province, was excavated from 1978 to 1979.

Dawenkou Culture (about 4100-2600BCE) existed primarily in the Shandong Peninsula, but also appeared in Anhui, Henan and Jiangsu provinces. The typical site at Dawenkou, located in Tai’an of Shandong Province, was excavated in 1959, 1974 and 1978. As with Beixin and Houli cultures, the main food was millet.

Yueshi Culture (about 2000-1600BCE) appeared in the same areas as Longshan Culture. The original site at Yueshi, in Pingdu of Shandong Province, was excavated in 1959.

Longshan Culture (about 3200-1900BCE) was centered on the central and lower Yellow River, including Shandong, Henan and Shaanxi provinces, during the late Neolithic period. Longshan Culture was named after the town of Longshan in Jinan, Shandong Province, where the first site containing distinctive cultural artifacts was found in 1928 and excavated from 1930 to 1931.

Wheat was widely cultivated in the Shandong Peninsula and eastern Henan during Longshan Culture. An implied code of etiquette in Longshan Culture shows social stratification and formation of the nation.

Longshan artifacts reveal a high level of technical skill in pottery making, including the use of pottery wheels. Longshan Culture is noted for its highly polished egg-shell pottery. This type of thin-walled and polished black pottery has also been discovered in the Yangtze River Valley and as far away as today’s southeastern coast of China. It is a clear indication of how Neolithic agricultural sub-groups of the greater Longshan Culture spread out across the ancient boundaries of China.

The Neolithic population in China reached its peak during the time of Longshan Culture. Towards the end of the Longshan cultural period, the population decreased sharply; this was matched by the disappearance of high-quality black pottery from ritual burials.

Archaeologists and historians agree that so-called Longshan Culture is actually made up of different cultures from multiple sources. Longshan Culture is now identified as four different cultures according to inhabitation areas and appearance: Shandong Longshan Culture, Miaodigou Second Culture, Henan Longshan Culture and Shaanxi Longshan Culture. Only the Shandong Longshan Culture came purely from Yueshi (Dong Yi) Culture; the three other Longshan cultures were rooted in Di Qiang Culture, but deeply influenced by Dong Yi Culture, which had also influenced Di Qiang Culture earlier in the Neolithic age.

Shandong Longshan Culture (also called representative Longshan Culture, about 2500-2000BCE), was named after the town of Longshan in Jinan, Shandong Province, where the first archaeological site was found in 1928 and excavated from 1930 to 1931.

Miaodigou Second Culture (about 2900-2800BCE) was mainly distributed throughout western Henan Province and came from Yangshao Culture.

Henan Longshan Culture (about 2600-2000BCE) was mainly distributed in western, northern and eastern Henan Province and came from Miaodigou Second Culture.

Shaanxi Longshan Culture (about 2300-2000BCE) was mainly distributed in the Jinghe and Weihe River Valley in Shaanxi Province.

Dong Yi Culture was the Most Advanced Culture in Neolithic China.

1) The writing system of Dong Yi Culture is one of the oldest in Neolithic China. It was an important source of the Shang oracle bone script. Some of the characters continued to be used in modern Chinese writing, such as: [1]

The Changle Bone Inscriptions, found in Changle, Qingzhou, Shouguang, Huantai, Linzi and Zouping in Shandong Province, belonged to Longshan Culture and are regarded as recording characters used 1,000 years earlier than Shang oracle bone script. [2]

2) The Shao Hao People were the inventors of arrows in China. Zuozhuan has the similar records as Shuowen Jiezi: Shibu, saying, “In ancient times, Yi Mu started making the bow and arrow.” Liji: Sheyi says, “Hui made the bow and Yi Mu made the arrow.”

3) The Shao Hao People had great skill in making pottery. Longshan Culture’s eggshell black pottery is regarded as one of the best ancient Chinese pottery.

4) The Shao Hao People were the earliest users of copper and iron in Neolithic China.

5) The earliest human brain operation in Neolithic China was believed to be conducted about 5,000 years ago in Guangrao of Shandong. In an archaeological site of Dawenkou Culture in Fujia, Guangrao of Shandong, an adult male skull was discovered. A hole on the skull with very neat edges was believed by scientists to have been created by a craniotomy. The man recovered from the surgery and had lived for a long time after it, before he died.

6) The Shao Hao People firstly developed etiquette in Neolithic China. A code of etiquette in Longshan Culture, implied by artifacts, such as Ceremonial architecture, sacrificial vessels (Eggshell black pottery and Ritual Jade) and animal bones used to practice divination, shows social stratification and formation of the Shao Hao nation. Clearly, the earliest nation of Neolithic China was built in the Shandong Peninsula by the Shao Hao People.

The Changjiang River Valley Cultural System included:

(1) The rice-growing cultures in the lower reach of the Changjiang River, such as:

Hemudu Culture (about 5000-3300BCE) in Yuyao of Zhejiang; Majiabang Culture (about 5000-4000BCE) in Jiaxing of Zhejiang and its successors, Songze Culture (about 3800-2900BCE) in Qingpu District of Shanghai, and Liangzhu Culture (about 5300-4200BCE) near Taihu of Zhejiang.

Their main cultivated food was rice. Many painted-potteries and also a large numbers of black potteries, discovered in these sites, suggests they had been influenced by Dawenkou Culture, which had spread out from the Shandong Peninsula to the eastern Anhui, Henan and Jiangsu.

2) The rice-growing cultures in the middle reach of the Changjiang River, such as:

Pengtoushan Culture (about 8200-7800BCE) in Li County of Hunan, Daxi Culture (about 4400-3300BCE) in Wushan County of Chongqing and Qujialing (about 2550-2195BCE) in Jingshan County of Hubei.

Their main cultivated food was rice. Potteries discovered in Pengtoushan are only red brown painted-pottery and in Daxi are mainly red painted-pottery, but in Qujialing are mainly black and grey pottery. Patterns of painted-potteries in Daxi show clear connection with Miaodigou type of Yangshao Culture, suggesting that Yangshao Culture had deeply influenced Daxi Culture. Black potteries discovered in Qujialing have some similarities with Longshan Culture, suggesting that Longshan Culture had deeply influenced Qujialing Culture and its successors.

Other Cultural Systems included:

The millet-growing cultures in the southeastern Da Xing’an Ling Mountains, include:

Xiaohexi Culture (about 6500BCE) in Aohan Banner; Xinglongwa Culture (about 6200-5400BCE) in Xinglongwa Village of Baoguotu Township in Aohan Banner of Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region and its successors, Zhaojiagou Culture (about 5200-4400BCE) in Aohan Banner and Hongshan Culture (about 4000-3000BCE), which have been found in an area stretching from Inner Mongolia to Liaoning. Their main cultivated food was millet.

Xinglongwa sites discover the earliest jade objects and a stone pile with dragon shape. Clay figurines, including figurines of pregnant women, are found throughout Hongshan sites. Hongshan burial artifacts include small copper rings and some of the earliest known examples of jade working, especially its jade pig dragons and embryo dragons. The dragon shape stone pile in Xinglongwa and jade dragons in Hongshan suggest the earliest dragon worship in ancient China.

Dalongtan Culture(about 4500BCE）situated at Long’an County of Guangxi Province. Main cultivated food was rice.
Dabenkeng Culture (about 4000-3000BCE) appeared in northern Taiwan and spread around the coast of the island, as well as the Penghu islands to the west. The rope figure potteries found in Dabenkeng are similar with Hemudu, Majiabang and Liangzhu. German archaeologist Robert Heine Geldern thought that Dabenkeng Culture also spread from Taiwan to Philippines and Polynesia.
Sanxingdui Culture(about 12000-3000BCE)

The site of Sanxingdui is located in the city of Guanghan, 40km from Chengdu, Sichuan Province. Archaeologists have discovered remains of human activity in Sanxingdui about 12,000 years BP. The archaeological site of Sanxingdui contains remains of Bronze Age culture. The culture of the Sanxingdui site is thought to be divided into several phases. The Sanxingdui Culture (about 5,000-3,000 years BP), which corresponds to periods II-III of the site, was an obscure civilization in southern China. This culture was contemporaneous with the Shang Dynasty. However, they developed a different method of bronze-making from the Shang. The first phase, which corresponds to Period I of the site, belongs to the Baodun and in the final phase (period IV) the culture merged with the Ba and Chu cultures. The culture was a strong central theocracy with trade links that brought bronze from Yin and ivory from Southeast Asia.

The most obvious difference, between Sanxingdui and the Chinese Bronze Age cultures of Henan, is the presence at Sanxingdui of a figural bronze tradition – statues, heads, and faces - without precedent elsewhere in China. The Sanxingdui Culture ended, possibly either as a result of natural disasters (evidence of massive flooding has been found), or invasion by a different culture.

Archaeologists have discovered the archaeological sites of jinsha near Chengdu, 50 kilometers to Sanxingdui. The cultural relics of Jinsha Culture (about 1250-650BCE) share similarities with Sanxingdui, but some of Jinsha’s relics share similarities with Liangzhu Culture (5300-4200BCE) in the lower reach of the Changjiang River. Historians believe that the Jinsha People came from Sanxingdui, but had influenced by the Changjiang River Valley cultures.

Shanhaijing, the Classic of Mountains and Seas

Shanhaijing, or Classic of Mountains and Seas, is a classic Chinese text compiling early geography and myth. Some people believe it is the first geography and history book in China. It is largely a fabulous geographical and cultural account of pre-Qin China as well as a collection of Chinese mythology. The book is about 31,000 words long and is divided into eighteen sections. It describes, among other things, over 550 mountains and 300 rivers. Versions of the text have existed since the fourth century BCE, but the present form was not reached until the early Han Dynasty (202BCE-220CE), a few centuries later.

It is also commonly accepted that Shanhaijing is a compilation of four original books:

1): Wu Zang Shan Jing, or Classic of the Five Hidden Mountains, passed from mouth to mouth during the Great Yu’s Time (before 2200BCE);

2): Hai Wai Si Jing, or Four Classic of Regions Beyond the Seas, passed from mouth to mouth during the period of the Xia’s time (about 2070-1600BCE);

3): Da Huang Si Jing, or Four Classic of the Great Wilderness, written during the Shang Dynasty (about 1600-1046BCE); and

4): Hai Nei Wu Jing, or Five Classic of Regions Within the Seas, written during the Zhou Dynasty (about 1046-256BCE).

The first known editor of Shanhaijing was Liu Xiang (77-6BCE) in the Han Dynasty, who was particularly well-known for his bibliographic work in cataloging and editing the extensive imperial library. [3] Later, Guo Pu (276-324CE), a scholar from the Jin Dynasty (also known as Sima Jin, 265-420CE), further annotated the work. [4]

Where was the Great Wilderness recorded in Shanhaijing?

According to Shanhaijing, the Great Wilderness was a large tract of savage land that unfit for human habitation and was in the south of the Mobile Desert, today’s Taklamakan Desert. Clearly, it included today’s Tibetan Plateau, west areas of the Sichuan Basin and western Yungui Plateau. Shanhaijing also mentioned “east wilderness” and “other wilderness,” which were not today’s Tibetan Plateau, but other savage lands that unfit for human habitation.

In Shanhaijing, the He (literally means river and hereinafter written as Yellow River) refers specificly to the Yellow River, which rises in the northern Bayankala Mountains, which are located in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau, and the Jiang (hereinafter written as Changjiang River) refers specificly to the Changjiang River, which rises in the southern Bayankala Mountains.

Shanhaijing uses Shui (literally means water) to name other rivers and waters.

Shanhaijing uses Hai (literally means sea) to name sea and saltwater lake and uses Ze, Chi and Yuan to name freshwater pool and lake.

The Mobile Desert in Shanhaijing refers to today’s Taklamakan Desert, the Asia’s biggest and world’s second biggest mobile desert, while the Rub Al Khal Desert in the Arabian Peninsula is the world’s biggest desert.

The Chishui River in Shanhaijing was located in the east of the Mobile Desert, today’s Taklamakan Desert, and the west of the Northwest Sea.

The Northwest Sea is today’s Qinghai Lake. The Qinghai Lake, also called Kokonor Lake, is a saltwater lake and used to be very big, but it had reduced to 1,000 kilometers in perimeter in the North Wei Dynasty (386-557CE) and kept reducing to 400 kilometers in perimeter in the Tang Dynasty (618-907CE) and 360 kilometers in perimeter today.

The areas to the west of today’s Dunhuang have been called the Western Regions of China since the Han Dynasty (202BCE-220CE).

Where was Mount Buzhou?

The Classic of the Mountains: West records, “Mount Buzhou was located in the northwest of Mount Chang Sha, 370 li away. Mount Zhu Bi was to the north and Mount Yue Chong was next to it; Lake Ao Ze lay to the east. From Mount Buzhou 420 li to the northwest was Mount Mi, where Huang Di lived in and ate jade ointment; another 420 li to the northwest was Mount Zhong; another 480 li to the northwest was Mount Tai Qi; another 320 li to the west was Mount Huai Jiang; another 400 li to the southwest was Kun Lun Mound, (which is not today’s Kunlun Mountain); another 370 li to the west was Mount Le You; another 400 li to the west was the desert. From Mount Le You 350 li to the northwest was Mount Yu, where the Western Queen Mother lived in; another 480 li to the west was Xuan Yuan Mound; another 300 li to the west was Mount Ji Shi; another 200 li to the west was Mount Chang Liu (hereinafter written as Changliu), where Shao Hao was respected as the White King or White Ancestor-god.”

The Classic of the Great Wilderness: West records, “Mount Buzhou was located in the region beyond the Northwest Sea (today’s Qinghai Lake), the border of the Great Wilderness.”

Wang Yi, a scholar of the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220CE), thought Mount Buzhou was located in the northwest of the Kunlun Mountains.

Many current scholars believe that Mount Buzhou was located in the eastern Pamirs Plateau, to the west of the Kunlun Mountains, but the specific location is not confirmed.

Shanhaijing’s records of Neolithic Chinese People

Five Biggest Groups of Neolithic Chinese People had Lived in the Pamirs Plateau before They Moved to other Places of China.

The Classic of the Mountains: West records that Huang Di (Yellow King) lived in Mount Mi. The word “Huang (yellow)” suggests that Huang Di had a clear Mongoloid racial characteristic - yellow skin. It also records that Shao Hao was respected as Bai Di, “White King” or “White Ancestor-god,” by people in Mount Changliu. The word “Bai (white)” suggests that Shao Hao had a clear Caucasoid racial characteristic - white skin. The fact that the Chang Liu People regarded Shao Hao as their “White King” or “White Ancestor-god” indicates that the Chang Liu People were offspring of the Shao Hao. Mount Mi and Changliu were located in today’s Pamirs Plateau. Today, we shall comprehend that Huang Di refers to Huang Di’s group due to they living in the matriarchal clan society before 8,000 years BP, so did Yan Di, Shao Hao, Zhuan Xu and Di Jun.

The Classic of the Great Wilderness: East tells that Shu Shi, Zhuan Xu’s son, lived near Mount Buzhou, also The Classic of the Great Wilderness: West says, “The Yu People (Di Jun’s offspring) fought with the Gong Gong People (Zhuan Xu’s offspring) in the Guo Mountain near Mount Buzhou,” suggesting Zhuan Xu’s group lived near Mount Buzhou in the Pamirs.

Shanhaijing does not give information about Di Jun living in the Pamirs Plateau, but records some groups of the Di Jun’s offspring living in the Pamirs Plateau or northwestern Tibetan Plateau, including King Shun’s group who lived near the “Chong Yuan Lake” in the northwestern Tibetan Plateau, the Yu People who lived near Mount Buzhou, and the Hou Ji and Tai Xi People who lived near the Ji Lake in the west of Mount Huai Jiang near Mount Buzhou. Clearly, Di Jun’s group used to live near Mount Buzhou, their offspring moved to the northern Tibetan Plateau and had a lot of wars with Zhuan Xu’s offspring.

Shanhaijing does not contain any detail of Yan Di living in the Pamirs Plateau, but clearly records that Ling Jia, Yan Di’s great-grandson, and Hu Ren, Yan Di’s great-great-grandson, lived in the west of the Taklamakan Desert. Drawing inferences about other cases from Huang Di, Shao Hao, Zhuan Xu and Di Jun, we can say that Yan Di’s group used to live near the Pamirs Plateau, later their offspring moved to the west of the Taklamakan Desert.

The Classic of the Great Wilderness: West tells us, “In the west of the Qinghai Lake and a corner of the Tibetan Plateau, there was Mount Buzhou. There were ten spirits (gods). It said that Nüwa’s intestines scattered into ten spirits; they lived in millet fields and slept on roads.” “Ten spirits” came from Nüwa and under her jurisdiction, lived near Mount Buzhou. This reveals that all ancient Chinese people, including the five biggest groups, regarded Nüwa as the Goddess since their early time.

Due to all ancient groups of Chinese people used to live in the Pamirs Plateau, they might have moved to the south areas of the Himalayan Mountains to the Indo-Gangetic Plain and contributed as some origins of the Ancient Indus Valley civilizations (about 3000-1700BCE). In this article, I will not discuss this. I will only talk about those ancient groups of people who moved to China and built ancient Chinese civilizations.

The Second Gathering Areas of Neolithic Chinese People were the West of the Qinghai Lake, East of the Taklamakan Desert and North of the Tibetan Plateau.

Shanhaijing records that many groups of people lived in the west of the Qinghai Lake and north of the Tibetan Plateau, including offspring of the Zhuan Xu, Di Jun, Huang Di, Shao Hao, Yan Di and other peoples, such as the Xi (west) Zhou, Bei (north) Qi and Xuan Yuan People.

In the west of the Taklamakan Desert, there lived:

(1) People recorded in TheClassic of the Great Wilderness: West -

The Western Queen Mother lived in Mount Yu in the western Pamirs Plateau.

The Hu Ren (also called Di Ren) People were ancestors of the Di Qiang People. Yan Di’s grandson was the father of Ling Jia; Ling Jia was the father of Hu Ren.

Yu Fu was the son of Zhuan Xu. Later the Yu Fu People turned their totem from snake (or animals) to fish and recovered from death.

2) People recorded in The Classic of the Mountains: West -

The Western Queen Mother lived in Mount Yu; the Xuan Yuan People lived in the Xuan Yuan Mound; Huang Di lived in Mount Mi and Shao Hao lived in Mount Changliu. They were all in today’s Pamirs Plateau.

In the northwest of the Tibetan Plateau, near Mount Buzhou, there lived:

Shu Shi, son of Zhuan Xu, recorded in The Classic of the Great Wilderness: West. Also “The Yu People (Di Jun’s offspring) fought with the Gong Gong People (Zhuan Xu’s offspring) in the Guo Mountain near Mount Buzhou.”

In the west of the Chishui River and east of the Taklamakan Desert, there lived:

(1) People recorded in TheClassic of the Great Wilderness: West -

The Bei (north) Di People were offspring of Shi Jun, who was grandson of Huang Di.

Tai Zi Chang Qin, who lived in Mount Yao and started making music, was the son of Zhu Rong. Zhuan Xu was the father of Lao Tong; Lao Tong was the father of Zhu Rong. Later, the Zhu Rong People moved to the east of the Chishui River and lived in the far south of the Di Mountain, recorded in The Classic of Regions Beyond the Sea: South.

2) People recorded in The Classic of the Great Wilderness: North -

The Zhong Bian People were descendants of Zhong Bian, son of Zhuan Xu.

In the northern Tibetan Plateau, there lived:

(1) People recorded in TheClassic of the Great Wilderness: West -

The Xuan Yuan People moved from the Xuan Yuan Mound in the Pamirs Plateau to the northern Tibetan Plateau and their life-span was more than 800 years. (In ancient China, people often used eight, eighty or eight hundreds to mean a lot.)

The San Mian People were descendants of San Mian, son of Zhuan Xu.

The Ye People, who lived in the westernmost place of the Tibetan Plateau, were offspring of Li. Zhuan Xu was the father of Lao Tong; Lao Tong was the father of Chong and Li.

2) People recorded in The Classic of the Great Wilderness: North -

Shao Hao was the father of Wei, who had only one eye in the center of his face. The Wei People, with the surname of Wei, ate millet.

The Bei (north) Qi People (Jiang Zi-ya’s ancestors).

The Shu Chu People were descendants of Shu Chu, son of Zhuan Xu.

The Quan Rong People ate meat. Huang Di was the father of Miao Long; Miao Long was the father of Rong Wu; Rong Wu was the father of Nong Ming; Nong Ming was the father of Bai Quan, also called Quan Rong.

The Kua Fu People. Hou Tu was the father of Sin; Sin was the father of Kua Fu.

The Ba People (descended from Ba, Huang Di’s daughter).

3) People recorded in The Classic of the Great Wilderness: South

King Shun’s group (Di Jun’s offspring) bathed in the Chong Yuan Lake.

In the west of the Qinghai Lake and east of the Chishui River, there lived the Xi (west) Zhou People (the Zhou Dynasty’s ancestors) with the surname of Ji, who ate millet, recorded in The Classic of the Great Wilderness: West.

Shu Jun started practicing cultivating grains. Di Jun was the father of Hou Ji and Tai Xi; Tai Xi was the father of Shu Jun.

Yu Hao was the father of Yan Er. Yan Er was the father of Wu Gu. Wu Gu was the father of Ji Wu Min. Both the Yan Er People, who ate millet, and the Ji Wu Min People, who ate fish, had the surname of Ren.

The Guan Tou People and Miao Min People had the surname of Li. Zhuan Xu was the ancestor of Guan Tou; The Guan Tou were the ancestors of Miao Min.

Later the Guan Tou People moved to the south of today’s Tibetan Plateau and fish in the sea (highly possible today’s sea near Dhaka of Bangladesh), recorded in The Classic of the Great Wilderness: South. Gun’s wife Shi Jing gave birth to Yan Rong; Yan Rong was the father of Guan Tou.

Shanhaijing does not give time sequence when recording locations of ancient groups of people, but gives us clues to find out the time sequence. These clues lead to a conclusion that Huang Di’s, Yan Di’s, Zhuan Xu’s, Di Jun’s and Shao Hao’s groups spread out from the Pamirs Plateau to the north of the Tibetan Plateau, west of the Qinghai Lake and east of the Taklamakan Desert, excepting Yan Di’s offspring, who spread out to the west and north of the Taklamakan Desert; Yu Fu’s group (offspring of Zhuan Xu) also moved to that area.

The Classic of the Great Wilderness: North tells that Wei, son of Shao Hao, lived in the north of the Tibetan Plateau, suggesting the Shao Hao People spread out from Mount Changliu in the Pamirs Plateau to the north of the Tibetan Plateau.

The Classic of the Great Wilderness: North says that Zhuan Xu and his nine wives were buried on Mount Fuyu, which was located between the Yellow River beyond the Qinghai Lake, suggesting that the Zhuan Xu People spread out from the eastern Pamirs to Mount Fuyu in today’s Aemye Ma-chhen Range.

The Classic of the Great Wilderness: South says King Shun lived in the northwestern Tibetan Plateau; also Di Jun (Di Ku), King Yao, King Shun and Shu Jun (grandson of Di Jun) were buried in the same place on the Yueshan Mountain. The Classic of the Great Wilderness: West says the Yu People fought with the Gong Gong People in the Guo Mountain near Mount Buzhou; also Shu Jun’s group lived in the west of the Qinghai Lake and east of the Chishui River. These records hint us that the Di Jun People spread out from the Pamirs to the northern Tibetan Plateau and begat many groups, such as the Yao, Shun and Yu People, also the Hou Ji, Tai Xi and Shu Jun People, who lived in the east of the Chishui River and west of the Qinghai Lake.

Huang Di’s group lived in Mount Mi in the Pamirs Plateau, while their offspring, the Miao Long, Rong Wu, Nong Ming, Bai Quan, or Quan (Xi) Rong, lived in the north of the Tibetan Plateau and the Shi Jun and Bei (north) Di lived in the west of the Chishui River.

The Xuan Yuan People spread out from the Xuan Yuan Mound in the Pamirs Plateau to the northern Tibetan Plateau.

Wars recorded in Shanhaijing.

Shanhaijing records many wars between different groups of people and these wars led to some agreements of their shifting routes.

One of these famous wars happened between the Chi You People (offspring of Zhuan Xu) and the Ying Long People (offspring of Huang Di).

Shanhaijing records Zhuan Xu had at least nine wives and many sons, more than Yan Di, Huang Di, Di Jun and Shao Hao. The followings are Zhuan Xu’s sons: Yu Fu, Shu Shi, Shu Chu, San Mian, Zhong Bian, Lao Tong, who was the father of Zhu Rong (who was Tai Zi Chang Qin’s father), Chong and Li (who was Ye’s father). The Zhuan Xu’s offspring also include Hou Tu, Sin’s father and Kua Fu’s grandfather, also Gun, who and his wife Shi Jing were the parents of Yan Rong, Guan Tou’s father and Miao Min’s grandfather. There were many groups of people who were offspring of Zhuan Xu’s group and they could outnumber others when they lived in the west of the Qinghai Lake.

The Chi You People had a sense of “safety in numbers” and launched an offensive to the Huang Di People, who had fewer groups. The Ying Long People took up the challenge and killed the Chi You People with the help of the Ba People (offspring of Huang Di’s daughter Ba). Later, the Kua Fu People (offspring of Zhuan Xu) moved to the east and became far away from other Zhuan Xu’s offspring, the Ying Long seized the chance and killed the Kua Fu People. After killing the Chi You and Kua Fu, the Ying Long were afraid of retribution from Zhuan Xu’s offspring, they escaped to the south and later moved to Mound Xiong Li Tu Qiu in the north of the eastern mountains.

Another famous war happened between the Ba People and Shu Jun People (offspring of Di Jun). After the Ying Long went to the south, the Ba People, who had come to help the Ying Long, lived in the west of the Qinghai Lake. They had conflicts with the Shu Jun People. After negotiation, the Ba People believed their Ancestor-god Huang Di asked them to move to the north of the Chishui River. These stories hint us that ancient groups of Chinese people made an agreement after these wars, that the Huang Di’s offspring would live in the north of the Chishui River and move to the northern areas, matching Shanhaijing’s records of their later inhabitation areas.

The Classic of the Great Wilderness: South records, “The Yu People launched an offensive against the Yun Yu People in the Yun Yu Mountain in the northern Tibetan Plateau.” The Classic of the Great Wilderness: North says, “The Yu People killed Xiang Yao, Gong Gong’s minister, in the north of the Kunlun Mountains.” Also The Classic of the Great Wilderness: West tells, “The Yu People fought with the Gong Gong People in the Guo Mountain near Mount Buzhou.” Clearly, the Di Jun’s and Zhuan Xu’s offspring fought a lot when they lived in the west of the Qinghai Lake. After these wars, they might have reached an agreement - Zhuan Xu’s offspring would go to the south, while Di Jun’s offspring would go to east. Such migration routes matched Shanhaijing’s records of their later inhabitation areas.

“Shao Hao nurturing the immature Zhuan Xu and the Zhuan Xu discarding their musical instruments - Qin and Se,” recorded in The Classic of the Great Wilderness: East, hint us that the Shao Hao People mastered the most advanced sciences and technologies and the Zhuan Xu People built close relationship with them in their early time, learned eagerly from them and discarded musical instruments, which were first invented by Tai Zi Chang Qin. Due to the Shao Hao mastering most advanced technologies, all other peoples would like to build close relationships with them, therefore, Shanhaijing has no records of Shao Hao’s offspring fighting with other peoples in their early time.

Neolithic Chinese People spread out from the Pamirs to the West of the Qinghai Lake and East of the Taklamakan Desert, then to other places.

The Huang Di, Zhuan Xu, Di Jun and Shao Hao People, and some other peoples, such as the Xuan Yuan, Xi (west) Zhou and Bei (north) Qi People, spread out from the Pamirs Plateau to the west of the Qinghai Lake and east of the Taklamakan Desert, lived nomadic lifestyle side by side, hunting animal, collecting millet and learning from each other. Within five to six generations, they had mastered many new sciences and technologies, Tai Zi Chang Qin (Zhuan Xu’s great-grandson) was the progenitor of making music instruments and Shu Jun (Di Jun’s grandson) was the progenitor of practicing cultivating grains.

After some wars, ancient Chinese people made some agreements. The Huang Di People moved to the north of the Chishui River, Tianshan Mountains and further northern and northeastern areas. Most of the Zhuan Xu People lived near the Tibetan Plateau and later some of them moved to the south, such as the Zhu Rong People, reached the Sichuan Basin, such as the Yu Fu People, and the Bay of Bengal, such as the Guan Tou People. The Shao Hao and Di Jun People moved to the east to the Weihe River Valley.

Of course, there were also possibly very few groups from the Di Jun, Zhuan Xu and Shao Hao going to the north, or going to the south; due to the fact that they were not the majority, we would not discuss them.

The Third Gathering Area of Neolithic Chinese People was the Weihe River Valley.

The Shao Hao and Di Jun People spread out to the Weihe River Valley.

(Ancient Chinese people named Mount Hua in Huayin City of Shaanxi Province, the West Sacred Mountain; while named Mount Tai in Shandong Province, the East Sacred Mountain. The God of Mount Hua was Shao Hao, the White Ancestor-God. Qin Shi-huang, 259-210BCE, was the first emperor who offered sacrifice to Mount Hua. Emperors of the Han, Tang, Song, Ming and Qing all offered sacrifices to Mount Hua.)

The Zhuan Xu People, who lived in the Aemye Ma-chhen Range, were very near the Weihe River Valley and had the ability to move to the Weihe Plain. However, due to the fact that the Zhuan Xu People had many wars with the Di Jun, it is highly possible that the Di Jun People did not allow the Zhuan Xu People to enter the Weihe Plain. This matches Shanhaijing having no records of the Zhuan Xu People living in the central and eastern China.

Archaeological Findings Match Shanhaijing’s Records of Ancient Groups of Chinese People.

Neolithic Chinese People Spread Out from the Pamirs Plateau to the East to Other Places of China.

Current humans share a common group of ancestors who were late Modern Humans (Homo sapiens sapiens) and who became the only surviving human species on Earth about 20,000 years ago. This latest human species, Homo sapiens sapiens, our ancestors, soon entered the Neolithic, a period in the development of human technology. The Neolithic period began in some parts of the Middle East about 18,000 years BP according to the ASPRO chronology (others said about 10200BCE) and later in other parts of the world and ended between 4500BCE and 2000BCE. In my paper, the Neolithic Age was from 16000BCE to 2000BCE.

About 20,000-19,000 years BP, in the end of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) period, vast ice sheets covered much of North America, northern Europe and Asia; many high mountains were covered by snow and ice. The world’s sea level was about 130 meters lower than today, due to the large amount of sea water that had evaporated and been deposited as snow and ice, mostly in the Laurentide ice sheet. At the later stage of the Pleistocene since about 18,000 years BP, temperature rose quickly and snow and ice started melting, including the Pamirs Plateau and Tibetan Plateau. [5]

Archaeologists have found a lot of remains of human activity 10,000 years ago in China, including Zhaojiaxuyao Village (about 13,200 years BP) in Linzi of Zibo, (in where the earliest pottery of ancient China was discovered); Bianbian cave (about 12,000-9,000 years BP) of Yiyuan in Shandong; Zhuan’nian site (10,000-9,200 years BP) of Huairou County, Beijing; Nazhuantou (10,500-9,700 years BP) of Xushui in Henan; Yujiagou (lower layer) site (14,000-8,000 years BP) of Yangyuan County of Hebei; Baoding (10,000 years BP) of Hebei; Ji County (before 10,000 years BP) of Tianjin; Yuchanyan of Dao County in Hunan (about 12,000BCE), Diaotonghuan (10,000 years BP) in Jiangxi; Qinglong County (before 10,000 years BP) of Guizhou; Sanxingdui (phase I) in Chengdu of Sichuan (about 12,000-5000 years BP); Baozitou (10,000 years BP) of Nanning in Guangxi; Yingde of Guangdong (about 11000-8000BCE); and Qideharen (12000-2000BCE) of Habahe County in the northwestern Altay Shan Mountains. In 2013, Hou Guang-liang, the professor of the School of Life and Geography Science of Qinghai Normal University, and other archaeologists of the Cultural Relics and Archaeology Institute of Qinghai discovered remains of human activity about 11,200-10,000 years BP in Xiadawu of Maqin County, Golog Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture of Qinghai Province.

Archaeologists confirm that rice cultivation history occurred earlier than millet in China. Neolithic Chinese people went from gathering to cultivating millet around 11,000 years BP, when the sea level was about 20-30 meters lower than today; In fact, cultivated rice from as early as 14,000 years BP has been discovered in many Chinese Neolithic archaeological sites in southern China. These include sites in Dao County of Hunan (about 12000BCE), Wannian County of Jiangxi (about 10,000 years BP) and Yingde of Guangdong (about 11000-8000BCE). These prove that ancestors of modern humans had lived all over China and learned how to farm at least 16,000-14,000 years ago.

Shanhaijing identifies about 150 groups of people, who came from the five biggest groups of people and played important roles in building ancient Chinese civilization. The five most famous groups were the Zhuan Xu, Di Jun, Huang Di, Yan Di and Shao Hao; they all worshipped Highest Goddess Nüwa since their earliest time. These groups first lived in the Pamirs Plateau and their offspring moved to the east and spread out to all over China.

Shanhaijing’s records and archaeological findings bring us a scientific conclusion. The Pamirs Plateau was very cold and unfit for human habitation before 16,000 years BP. As temperature rising, people, who lived in the Pamirs Plateau found that in the east of the Pamirs, there were vast fertile lands, they moved quickly from the Pamirs to the east and spread out to many places of China during about 16,000-14,000 years BP. The early ancient Chinese people lived nomadic lifestyle, moved frequently and were not able to leave much archaeological remains to us. However, when the Neolithic Chinese people started cultivating grains, they were able to settle down and left many archaeological remains.

Archaeologists agree that ancient Chinese people were in the matriarchal clan society before about 8,000 years BP, when human knew only mother, not father and accepted only endogamy within the same race.

In prehistoric China, people usually named their groups after certain ancestors. Shanhaijing records many ancient groups of people and names a group of people with “Guo,” its literal meaning is nation or tribe. Shanhaijing does not identify patriarchal ancestors of most ancient groups of people due to the long-time of matriarchal clan society. However, Shanhaijing clearly identifies some individual’s patriarchal clans and around 150 groups of Neolithic people, which came from the five biggest groups of people: Yan Di, Huang Di, Zhuan Xu, Di Jun and Shao Hao. These were not only the names of groups, but also the names of individuals, who were regarded by many groups as common male ancestors.

When the patriarchal clan society began in about 8,000 years BP, almost all ancient Chinese people still accepted only endogamy within same race, those people, who believed that they were offspring of Huang Di’s group, tried to compile their patriarchal clans and claimed Huang Di was their common male ancestor. However, they were not able to ascertain which particular individual was Huang Di, due to Huang Di living in the matriarchal clan society - his group had female as a leader and he, a male, was not able to be a leader. Clearly, Huang Di was only a figure from compilation, not a real person. Or, Huang (Yellow) Di (King or Queen) originally was a female leader but people in the patriarchal clan society claimed that he was a male leader. Today, we shall comprehend that Huang Di refers to Huang Di’s group. The Huang Di People refer to all people who were offspring of Huang Di’s group and regarded Huang Di as their common male ancestor. So did Yan Di, Shao Hao, Zhuan Xu and Di Jun.

While most geographical positions written in Shanhaijing cannot be verified, Shanhaijing still provides some hints to let us know the homelands of ancient groups of people.

The Movement of the Five Big Groups During the Neolithic Age.

The Yan Di People

The Yan Di People spread out from the Pamirs Plateau to the west of the Taklamakan Desert, later spread out to the north and northwest of the Tianshan Mountains, also west of the Pamirs Plateau, from where spread out to the south and then to southeastern Asia and Oceania. They were nomadic people and did not develop agriculture during the Neolithic Age.

Shanhaijing records the Yan Di gave birth to a group of people, who gave birth to Ling Jia; the Ling Jia gave birth to Hu Ren (also named Di Ren or Di Qiang); they lived in the west of the Taklamakan Desert.

From the west of the Taklamakan Desert, they might spread out to the west, south and north.

(1) They spread out to the west of the Pamirs Plateau, and from where they spread out to the south, then to southern and southeastern Asia and Oceania.

(2) They spread out to the north, to the west, southwest or northwest to Kazakhskiy Melkosopochnik, Baraba steppe, Ishim Grassland, Yablonovyy Khrebet Mountains.

Shanhaijing has little records for the Yan Di’s offspring, suggesting they did not have many offspring. The Yan Di and Huang Di People lived as neighbors in the early time, but when some of the Huang Di People moved further to the north, northwest and northeast, they might driven away the Yan Di’s offspring from the north to the south.

Shanhaijing records the Yan Di’s daughter Nü Wa (not Goddess Nüwa), who drowned in the Eastern Sea (today’s Sea of Japan) and became a Jing Wei Bird. This hints that only one group of the Yan Di People used to move to the northeast and reached the Sea of Japan, but perished. However, some remained Nü Wa women found the Di Jun men to procreate and left progeny - the Hei Chi People, surname Jiang, who lived in the west of the Shandong Peninsula.

The Huang Di People

The Huang Di People spread out from Mount Mi in the Pamirs Plateau to the east of the Taklamakan Desert and west of the Qinghai Lake. After wars, the Huang Di People moved to the north of the Chishui River, excepting one group, the Ying Long People, who had killed the Chi You and Kua Fu, went to the south and some of the Ying Long’s offspring moved to the north of the eastern mountains. From the north of the Chishui River, the Huang Di People spread out to the northern areas. Their migration routes were:

(1) First, to the north of the Altun Mountains, Qilian Mountains, Helan Mountains, north of the middle reach of the Yellow River and Yinshan Mountains. Huang Di’s offspring, who lived in these areas, were nomadic people and did not develop agriculture during the Neolithic Age.

The Mount Helan Rock Paintings, 56 kilometers north of Yinchuan of Ningxia, were created by artists living in the area in different periods from about 10,000-1,000 years BP, forming historical accumulation of multi-cultures. Most of the Mount Helan Rock Paintings represent ancient hunting cultures from different northern nomadic groups. The Huang Di’s, Di Jun’s and Shao Hao’s offspring all had the ability to reach this area. Due to the Shu Jun (the Di Jun’s offspring) having expelled the Ba (the Huang Di’s offspring) to the north, therefore, the Huang Di’s offspring only occupied a very small percentage in Mount Helan.)

(2) Second, to the north to the Kazakhskiy Melkosopochnik and its surrounding areas; further north to the Baraba steppe, Ishim Grassland, Yablonovyy Khrebet Mountains and further northern areas. The Huang Di’s offspring, who lived in these areas, were nomadic people and did not develop agriculture during the Neolithic Age.

(3) Third, to the Tianshan Mountains, Altay Shan Mountains, further north and northeast to the Mongolian Plateau, then to the east to the Da Xing’an Ling Mountains, Northeast Plain and Changbai Mountains, until they reached the Bohai Sea, Sea of Japan and the Korean Peninsula, which was named Liu Bo Mountains in Shanhaijing.

The Huang Di’s offspring lived a nomadic lifestyle in the northwestern areas and did not develop agriculture during the early Neolithic Age. The microlithic sites, discovered in Qideharen of Habahe County in the northwestern Altay Shan Mountains, reveal that the Huang Di People had lived a nomadic lifestyle in this area from at least 12,000BCE to 2,000BCE and then began to develop some agriculture. The Duoerte Rock Paintings in Habahe County prove that the Huang Di People had lived in this area from 14,000 years BP.

Shanhaijing tells that Yu Hao, Dan Er (surnamed Ren), Wu Gu and Ji Wu Min (surnamed Ren) lived in the northern Tibetan Plateau and west of the Qinghai Lake, but their offspring moved to the Northeast Sea (today’s Sea of Japan and Bohai Sea), in where they worshipped sea-god Yu Qiang (Yu Hao). Yu Hu and Yu Jing were their offspring.

Also the Ying Long moved to Mount Xiong Li Tu Qiu in the north of the eastern mountains, highly possible near today’s Liaohe Plain, in where the Ying Long was worshipped as a kind of dragon.

Clearly a few groups of the Huang Di’s offspring moved to the Da Xing’an Ling Mountains, Changbai Mountains and Northeast China Plain (including Liaohe Plain), in where they learned from the Shao Hao’s offspring and turned from nomadic to agricultural lifestyles.

Archaeologists discover that Xiaohexi (7500-6200BCE), Xinglongwa (6200-5200BCE) and Zhaobaogou (5200-4500BCE) cultures in the Liaohe Plain, and Hongshan Culture (4000-3000BCE), which have been found in an area stretching from the Liaohe Plain to Inner Mongolia, had built farming civilizations of mainly cultivated millet and had reared livestock. These cultures match inhabitation areas of the Shao Hao’s offspring and a few groups of the Huang Di’s offspring, such as Yu Hu, Yu Jing and the Ying Long’s offspring. However, the Shao Hao’s offspring, who spread out from the Shandong Peninsula along coastline to the north, arrived the Liaohe Plain earlier than the Huang Di’s offspring, who were in a very small percentage. Therefore, the Shao Hao People were the leading developers of these cultures.

The Shao Hao People

The Shao Hao People spread out from Mount Changliu in the western Pamirs Plateau to the west of the Qinghai Lake. The remaining Shao Hao People in Mount Changliu were called “Chang Liu People,” who worshipped Shao Hao as the White King or White Ancestor-god.

Shanhaijing records many wars between different groups of people but no wars between the Shao Hao and other peoples in their early time; instead, the early Zhuan Xu People learning eagerly from the Shao Hao and having no time for their musical instruments, reveals the Shao Hao had mastered most advanced sciences and technologies, all other groups of ancient Chinese people would like to build close friendship with them. Thereby the Shao Hao had greatly influenced other groups of ancient Chinese people with their advanced technologies since their early time.

(1) The Shao Hao and Di Jun People spread out to the Weihe River Valley and the lower reach of the Yellow River during 16,000-14,000 years BP. The Di Jun lived in the west of today’s Shandong Peninsula.

Around 11,000 years BP, Neolithic Chinese people went from gathering to cultivating millet. Shanhaijing records that the Hou Ji and Shu Jun were the earliest people who experimented with cultivated grains. While archaeological discoveries reveal that the Shao Hao People in the Shandong Peninsula mastered most advanced sciences and technologies during the Neolithic Age. Therefore, the Shao Hao and Di Jun People were the earliest people who develop agriculture.

The god of Mount Hua was Shao Hao, the White Ancestor-God, suggesting the people lived near Mount Hua were offspring of the Shao Hao People.

Mount Hua in Huayin City of Shaanxi Province was the center of Yangshao Culture (5000-3000BCE), which existed in the middle reach of the Yellow River. It reached east to eastern Henan Province, west to Gansu and Qinghai provinces, north to the Hetao area, the Great Band of Yellow River and the Great Wall near Inner Mongolia, and south to the Jianghan Plain.

Laoguantai Culture (6000-5000BCE) was only 30 kilometers west to Mount Hua, and was almost certainly the inhabitation area of the Shao Hao People.

Therefore, the Shao Hao were the leading founders of Di Qiang Culture, including Laoguantai Culture, Qin’an Dadiwan First Culture (6200-3000BCE) in Qinan County of Gansu and their successor, Yangshao Culture, centered in Mount Hua. However, these areas also lived the Di Jun’s offspring, therefore, the Di Jun People were also contributors of these cultures.

Cishan-Peiligang Culture (about 6200-4600BCE) were located on the moving route of the Shao Hao near the Shandong Peninsula. Both of the Di Jun’s and Shao Hao’s offspring were able to reach these areas, but the Shao Hao were leading founders of Cishan-Peiligang Culture.

(2) The Shao Hao and Di Jun People spread out to the Altun Mountains, Qilian Mountains, Helan Mountains, the middle reach of the Yellow River, Yinshan Mountains and today’s Huabei Plain during 16,000-14,000 years BP.

(3) The Shao Hao’s offspring spread out along the Yellow River to today’s Shandong Peninsula during about 16,000-14,000 years BP, living a nomadic lifestyle, collecting millet and hunting animals. The Shao Hao’s migration route from the Pamirs Plateau to today’s Shandong Peninsula was exactly the later Old Silk Road, which was built during the Han Dynasty (202BCE-220CE).

The Shao Hao People were leading founders of Zhaojiaxuyao in Linzi of Zibo (about 13,200 years BP) and Bianbian cave in Beitaohuaping Village of Yiyuan County, Zibo (about 11,000-9,600 years BP), Houli Culture (6400-5700BCE), a millet-growing culture in Linzi, Baishi Coastal Culture (before 7,000 years BP) in the Jiaodong Peninsula, Beixin Culture (5300-4100BCE), Dawenkou (4100-2600BCE) and Longshan (3200-1900BCE) cultures in the Shandong Peninsula.

The technologies of making black potteries were developed only in the Shandong Peninsula and later spread out to other places of China. The potteries discovered in Houli Culture are main painted-potteries, but also have some black potteries, which used more advanced technologies. Houli, Beixin and Dawenkou cultures and their successor Longshan Culture were named “Dong Yi Culture” by modern archaeologists and historians, who also agree that Dong Yi Culture was the most advanced culture in Neolithic China.

(4) Along coastline, the Shao Hao’s offspring spread out from today’s Shandong Peninsula and the eastern seashore to the north to today’s Liaohe Plain, Liaodong Peninsula, Korea Peninsula, Japanese archipelago, Kamchatka Peninsula, Aleutian Islands and Americas since 16,000-14,000 years BP.

The Shao Hao’s offspring were leading founders of Zhuan’nian site (10,000-9,200 years BP) of Huairou County, Beijing; Nazhuantou (10,500-9,700 years BP) of Xushui in Henan; Yujiagou (lower layer) site (14,000-8,000 years BP) of Yangyuan County of Hebei; Baoding (10,000 years BP) of Hebei; Ji County (before 10,000 years BP) of Tianjin. However, the Di Jun’s offspring could also reach these areas and lived in the west of the Shao Hao’s territories, which were near sea.

The Shao Hao’s offspring were leading founders of millet-growing cultures in the Liaohe Plain in the southeast of the Da Xing’an Ling Mountains, such as, Xiaohexi (7500-6200BCE), Xinglongwa (6200-5200BCE) and Zhaobaogou (5200-4500BCE) cultures in the Liaohe Plain, and Hongshan Culture (4000-3000BCE), which have been found in an area stretching from the Liaohe Plain to Inner Mongolia. However, a very small percentage of the Huang Di’s offspring also lived in the Liaohe Plain.

(5) Along coastline, the Shao Hao’s offspring spread out from today’s Shandong Peninsula and the eastern seashore to the south to the Changjiang River estuary, southeastern China, including Taiwan, southeastern and southern Asia, Malaysia, Philippines, Indonesia, Polynesia and Australia.

The Shao Hao’s offspring were leading founders of rice-growing cultures in the lower reach of the Changjiang River, including Kuahuqiao (about 6000-5000BCE) in Xiaoshan of Zhejiang, Hemudu (5000-3300BCE) in Yuyao of Zhejiang, Majiabang (5000-4000BCE) in Jiaxing of Zhejiang and their successors, Songze (3800-2900BCE) in Qingpu District of Shanghai, and Liangzhu (3300-2300BCE) near Taihu of Zhejiang. However, a very small percentage of the Di Jun’s offspring, who lived in the west of the Shao Hao’s territories, were also able to reach these areas.

The Jade Statues in Lingjiatan Culture (3500-3300BCE) in Hanshan County of Anhui Province have big eyes with double eyelids, obvious non-Mongoloid characteristics, suggesting the Shao Hao’s offspring were leading founders of this culture.

The Shao Hao’s offspring were leading founders of Dabenkeng (4000-3000BCE) Culture. Archaeologists confirm that rope figure potteries found in Dabenkeng were similar with Hemudu, Majiabang and Liangzhu cultures. German archaeologist Robert Heine Geldern thought that Dabenkeng Culture also spread from southeastern China and Taiwan to Philippines and Polynesia.

The Shao Hao’s offspring were leading founders of Baozitou (10,000 years BP) of Nanning in Guangxi; Yingde of Guangdong (about 11000-8000BCE), but a very small percentage of the Zhuan Xu’s offspring also had the ability to reach Baozitou.

Archaeological discoveries match the Shao Hao’s inhabitation areas recorded in Shanhaijing, which also reveals that sea level rising forced the Shao Hao’s offspring to move. The Classic of the Great Wilderness: South records the Bei People (the Shao Hao’s offspring) fought with the Di Jun’s offspring for territory, lost the fight and moved to the Mei Yuan Lake. This story tells us that the Shao Hao’s offspring, who had moved to the south of the Changjiang River, moved to inland regions when sea level rising, entered territories of the Di Jun People and caused conflicts.

The Di Jun People

The Di Jun People spread out from the Pamirs Plateau to the east of the Taklamakan Desert and west of the Qinghai Lake.

(1) The Shao Hao and Di Jun People spread out to the Altun Mountains, Qilian Mountains, Helan Mountains, the middle reach of the Yellow River, Yinshan Mountains and today’s Huabei Plain during 16,000-14,000 years BP. They were able to reach Zhuan’nian site (10,000-9,200 years BP) in Huairou County of Beijing, Nanzhuangtou site (10,500-9,700 years BP) in Xushui County, Baoding of Hebei, Yujiagou (lower layer) site (14,000-8,000 years BP) in Yangyuan County of Hebei.

(2) Following the Shao Hao People, the Di Jun People spread out to the Weihe River Valley and then to the lower reach of the Yellow River during 16,000-14,000 years BP, living a nomadic lifestyle, collecting millet and hunting animals, in the west of the Shao Hao’s inhabitation areas (today’s Shandong Peninsula and its eastern area).

The Shao Hao People took the leading position, while the Di Jun People took the secondary position, in developing Di Qiang Culture, including Laoguantai, Qin’an Dadiwan First, Cishan-peiligang and their successor, Yangshao Culture.

(3) The Di Jun’s offspring spread out from the Yellow River to the Changjiang River, then to the south of the Changjiang River before 14,000 years BP.

The Shao Hao’s offspring lived near sea in the lower reach of the Changjiang River and were founders of rice-growing cultures, Kuahuqiao, Hemudu, Majiabang, Songze and Liangzhu. But a very small percentage of the Di Jun’s offspring also had the ability to reach there and lived in the west of the Shao Hao’s territories.

Archaeologists have identified remains of several skeletons in Hemudu (5000-3300BCE) sites have high and wide cheekbones, shovel-shaped incisor, flat nasal bone, concave nasal bridge and low orbit, bearing clearly Mongoloid racial characteristics, suggesting they were offspring of the Di Jun’s offspring. Also the Jade Statues in Lingjiatan Culture (3500-3300BCE) in Hanshan County of Anhui Province have big eyes with double eyelids, obvious non-Mongoloid characteristics, suggesting they were the Shao Hao’s offspring.

(4) The middle reach of the Changjiang River Valley Cultural System, a rice-growing system, includes: Pengtoushan (8200-7800BCE) in Li County of Hunan, Qujialing (2550-2195BCE) in Jingshan of Hubei and Daxi (4400-3300BCE) in Chongqing in the southwest of Sichuan Basin. Pengtoushan and Qujialing matched inhabitation areas of the Di Jun’s offspring, while both the Di Jun and Zhuan Xu People had the ability to reach Daxi and the Di Jun lived in the east of the Zhuan Xu’s territories, which were near the Tibetan Plateau.

The potteries found in Pengtoushan were only painted potteries, a little resemblance with the early Di Qiang Culture, suggesting the Changjiang River Valley cultures were influenced by the Yellow River Valley cultures. The potteries in Daxi Culture were mostly painted potteries but also many black potteries and in Qujialing Culture were main black potteries, suggesting that Yangshao Di Qiang Culture (5000-3000BCE) had deeply influenced Daxi Culture and Longshan Dong Yi Culture (3200-1900BCE) had deeply influenced Qujialing Culture.

(5) The archaeological sites in Wannian County of Jiangxi (about 10,000 years BP) and Dao County of Hunan (about 12,000BCE), which have discovered cultivated rice, were inhabitation areas of the Di Jun’s offspring.

The Zhuan Xu People

The Zhuan Xu People spread out from Mount Buzhou in the Pamirs Plateau to the east of the Taklamakan Desert and west of the Qinghai Lake during around 16,000-15,000 years BP.

Shanhaijing records many wars between different groups of the Zhuan Xu People, such as the Xing Tian fought with the Zhuan Xu for the status of their Ancestor-god in the west of the Tibetan Plateau, recorded in The Classic of Regions Beyond the Seas: West, suggesting the Zhuan Xu had different factions. The famous legend of Gong Gong fighting with the Zhuan Xu for leadership but losing, bumping his head against Mount Buzhou in anger, was also due to the faction conflict.

Shanhaijing also records many wars between the Zhuan Xu and Huang Di People and those wars ended with the Zhuan Xu’s defeat, such as the Ying Long killed the Chi You with help from the Ba and later killed the Kua Fu. The Ying Long and Ba were the Huang Di’s offspring while the Chi You and Kua Fu were the Zhuan Xu’s offspring.

Shanhaijing has no record of the Zhuan Xu having war with the Shao Hao, instead, The Classic of the Great Wilderness: East records that the Shao Hao People nurtured the more immature Zhuan Xu People and the Zhuan Xu discarded their musical instruments - Qin and Se, suggesting the Zhuan Xu had built close friendship with the Shao Hao since their early time and learned eagerly most advanced technologies from the Shao Hao.

(1) The Classic of the Great Wilderness: North says Zhuan Xu and nine wives were buried in Mount Fuyu, which was located between the Yellow River beyond the northwest sea (Qinghai Lake). The Mount Fuyu is located in today’s Aemye Ma-chhen Range, which is located inside the U-shaped turn of the Yellow River.

The remains of human activity about 11,200-10,000 years BP in Xiadawu of Maqin County, Golog Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture of Qinghai Province, near the Aemye Ma-chhen Range, were inhabitation areas of the Zhuan Xi’s offspring.

The Aemye Ma-chhen Range is very near to the Weihe River Valley. Some of the Zhuan Xu People possibly followed the Shao Hao and Di Jun People to enter the Weihe River Valley. However, Shanhaijing records many wars between the Zhuan Xu and Di Jun People since their early time and those wars ended with the Zhuan Xu’s defeat. For an example, the Yu People fought with the Gong Gong near Mount Buzhou. Due to the overwhelming majority of the Di Jun People moving to the eastern China, they did not allow the Zhuan Xu People to enter the Weihe Plain and move to the east to grab territories from them. This matches Shanhaijing having no records of the Zhuan Xu People living in the eastern China.

(2) The famous Dzopa stone discs, which were made about 12,000 years BP and discovered in 1938 in the Bayankala Mountains, were the evidence of the Zhuan Xu’s offspring lived near the Tibetan Plateau about 13,000-12,000 years BP, when scientists believed that temperature there was fit for human habitation.

However, about 11,000 years BP, the Younger Dryas Event happened, the temperature in the Tibetan Plateau dropped nearly three degrees, meanwhile, the rapid uprising of the Tibetan Plateau began since 10,000 years BP. During this period, there were many earthquakes. The famous legend of Gong Gong fighting with the Zhuan Xu for the leadership and bumping his head against Mount Buzhou, was one of the earthquakes. The Zhuan Xu People in the Tibetan Plateau almost perished due to the great changes of environment; most of them had to move to other places, only a few groups of people were able to survive disasters. The Classic of the Great Wilderness: West says that the San Mian People, who had three faces and one arm, lived in the northern Tibetan Plateau and did not die. They survived during environment changes.

(3) Shanhaijing has many records of the Zhuan Xu People living near the Tibetan Plateau and later moving to the south. The Zhu Rong People moved from the west to the east of the Chishui River and lived in the far south of the Di Mountain, recorded in The Classic of Regions Beyond the Sea: South, hinting us that the Zhuan Xu’s offspring moved to the south along the east of the Tibetan Plateau.

The Huan Tou People, who were offspring of Gun (Zhuan Xu’s offspring) and used to live in the west of the Qinghai Lake, moved to the south of the Tibetan Plateau due to great environment changes and settled near sea, highly possible today’s Dhaka of Bangladesh. From that area, the Huan Tou People had the ability to spread out to today’s India, South Asia, Malaysia, Indonesia, Polynesia and Australia.

(4) A famous record in The Classic of the Great Wilderness: West goes, the Yu Fu People (the Zhuan Xu’s offspring), who lived in the west and north of the Taklamakan Desert, were nearly erased due to great natural disasters. They moved to the south of the Taklamakan Desert. “The Zhuan Xu People recovering from death” hints us that the Yu Fu moved to the Aemye Ma-chhen Range, where the Zhuan Xu used to live and were buried, and claimed they were the Zhuan Xu People. They changed their totem from a snake (or animal) to a fish.

Some legends said that ancestors of Sanxingdui came from the north along the rivers. The Yu Fu People moved from the Aemye Ma-chhen Range, which is exactly in the north of Sichuan Basin, to the south and entered Sichuan Basin. Archaeologists believe that the Yu Fu mentioned in Shanhaijing left remains at the archaeological site of Sanxingdui in Guanghan City in the northwestern Sichuan Basin. Archaeologists have discovered remains of human activity in Sanxingdui about 12,000 years BP. The Yu Fu People in Shanhaijing were the ancestors of the Yu Fu Culture whose remains were found in Sanxingdui.

The cultural relics of Jinsha Culture (about 1250-650BCE), 50 kilometers to Sanxingdui, share similarities with Sanxingdui, but some of Jinsha’s relics share similarities with Liangzhu Culture (3300-2300BCE) in the lower reach of the Changjiang River. Historians believe that the Jinsha People came from Sanxingdui, but had influenced by the Changjiang River Valley cultures.

(5) According to Mao County Yingpanshan Neolithic Site, publishing by Heritage Publishing House, the painted potteries in Yingpanshan Culture (5,300-4,600 years BP) (in Mao County of Sichuan) and Majiayao Culture (3300-2050BCE) (in an area of the upper reach of the Yellow River, Gansu and Qinghai) and the later stage of Yangshao Culture (5000-3000BCE) (centered in Mount Hua), have similarities and have same chemical compositions; also both of Yingpanshan and Majiayao-Yangshao were millet-growing cultures; however, Yingpanshan Culture has its unique grass-pattern potteries, which were not found in Majiayao and Yangshao cultures, suggesting the Yingpanshan people learned from the Majiayao and Yangshao people to make those painted potteries, and even the materials came from there. Majiayao site in Lintong of Gansu was 400 kilometers in the north of Yingpanshan in Mao County of Sichuan. Archaeological discoveries coincide with Shanhaijing’s record of the Zhuan Xu People learning eargly from the Shao Hao People, (who were leading founders of Di Qiang Culture).

Archaeologists discover that the Yingpanshan People came from the north and moved south 80 kilometers to Guiyuanqiao (in Shifang County of Sichuan), then moved south 50 kilometers to Baodun, and built the earliest city of Sichuan Basin - Baodun city. Baodun Culture (4,500-3,800 years BP), which is the earliest archaeology culture in Sichuan Basin, had the root in Yingpanshan Culture, but was also deeply influenced by Shijiahe Culture (about 6,000-4,500 years BP) in the middle reach of the Changjiang River, including the rice-cultivating culture, city wall construction techniques, potteries and stone tools.

Yingpanshan, Guiyuanqiao and Baodun cultures were migrating cultures. The moving route of the Yingpanshan People to Guiyuanqiao to Baodun, was also the moving route of the earliest Zhuan Xu People, along the east of the Tibetan Plateau, from the north to the south and reach Sichun Basin.

(6) The Zhuan Xu People, who moved to Sichuan Basin from the north, and the Di Jun People, who moved upstream from the middle reach of the Changjiang River, all had ability to reach Daxi Culture (4400-3300BCE) in Wushan County of Chongqing.

(7) The Qinglong Site of Guizhou and Dalongtan Culture (about 4500BCE), situated at Long’an County of Guangxi Province, were on the moving routes of the Zhuang Xu’s offspring, who moved from the north of the Tibetan Plateau to the south, until reached sea during about 16,000-14,000 years BP. But the Yu fu People were not ancestors of the Dalongtan People.

The Zhuan Xu’s offspring also had ability to reach Baozitou in Naba Village of Guangxi and Yingde of Guangdong, where were inhabitation areas of the Shao Hao’s offspring.

Cultures		Founders
Here, Shao Hao refers to Shao Hao’s offspring, so do Di Jun, Zhuan Xu and Huang Di.
Yellow River Di Qiang Culture	Laoguantai (6000-5000BCE) Qin’an Dadiwan First (6200-3000BCE) Cishan-Peiligang (6200-4600BCE) Yangshao (5000-3000BCE) Majiayao (3000-2000BCE)	Shao Hao & Di Jun (The Shao Hao were leading founders.)
Yellow River Dong Yi Culture	Houli (6400-5700BCE) Beixin (5300-4100BCE) Dawenkou (4100-2600BCE) Longshan (3200-1900BCE)	Shao Hao
Changjiang River Culture	Majiabang (5000-4000BCE) Hemudu (5000-3300BCE) Liangzhu (3300-2300BCE) Songze (3800-2900BCE)	Shao Hao
Changjiang River Culture	Pengtoushan (8200-7800BCE) Daxi (4400-3300BCE) Qujialing (2550-2195BCE)	Di Jun, but influenced by Shao Hao
Southeast Coast	Dabenkeng (4000-3000BCE)	Shao Hao
Zhujiang River	Dalongtan (4500BCE)	Zhuan Xu
Chengdu of Sichuan	Sanxingdui (12000-3000BCE)	Zhuan Xu (but deeply influenced by Shao Hao)
Da Xing’an Ling	Xiaohexi (7500-6200BCE) Xinglongwa (6200-5200BCE) Zhaobaogou (5200-4500BCE) Hongshan (4000-3000BCE)	Shao Hao & a very small percentage of Huang Di (The Shao Hao were leading founders.)

Conclusion

Due to the long-time of the matriarchal clan society, it was difficult to ascertain an individual’s patriarchal clan. However, almost all groups of ancient Chinese People accepted only endogamy within same race during the Neolithic Age, enabling Shanhaijing to identify about 150 groups of people, who came from the five biggest groups of people and had played important roles in making ancient Chinese civilization. The five most famous groups were the Yan Di, Huang Di, Zhuan Xu, Di Jun and Shao Hao. They first lived in the Pamirs Plateau, soon gathered in the area in the west of the Qinghai Lake and north of the Tibetan Plateau, then moved to other places of China during about 16,000-14,000 years BP.

References

(1) Liu Xiang (79BCE-8BCE)and Liu Xin (53BCE-23BCE, son of Liu Xiang) were first editors of Shanhaijing (before 4200BCE-256BCE).

(2) Guo Pu(276-324CE), author of Burial Book, was a geomantic scholar from the Jin Dynasty (also known as Sima Jin, 265-420CE),

[3] Li Xiao-ding, Collected Explanations of Shell and Bone Characters, Jiagu wenzi zhishi, 1965, 8 Volumes, The Institute of History and Philology.

[4] Liu Feng-Jun, Changle Bone Inscriptions, December 2008, Shandong Pictorial Publishing House

[5] Vivien Gornitz, Sea Level Rise, After the Ice Melted and Today, Jan 2007, NASA,

http://www.giss.nasa.gov/research/briefs/gornitz_09/ accessed June 2, 2024

Other Scholarly Papers Presented and Published by Soleilmavis.

https://peacepink.ning.com/blog/scholarly-papers-presented-and-published-by-soleilmavis

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